I have a multiple academic identity: as a Latin Americanist I have done research in Chile, Ecuador, Mexico and Brazil, and although Brazil became the most prominent, my attachment to and inspiration from Spanish America is extremely important. As a student of religion I have also worked in Israel and in London (as part of my research on a Brazil-based neo-Pentecostal church!)
The themes of my work are also multiple: originally specializing in Development Studies, I began working on religion in the 1980s, first in Brazil, then in Israel and now globally. Then in the first decade of the 2000s I branched out in a new direction with a big project on the spread of multiculturalism and affirmative action in Latin America. This took me to Mexico, Peru and Brazil and led to the publication of an edited volume entitled The Crisis of Multiculturalism in Latin America (2016) and a book on Brazil: The Prism of Race: the Ideology and Politics of Affirmative Action In Brazil (2018). The latter is due to appear in Portuguese translation in 2025.
Both religion and ethnicity have taken me to broader themes. Religion to a major project on a Brazil-based neo-Pentecostal church mentioned above : the humbly named Universal Church of the Kingdom of God which is present in 127 countries and which I have visited in 13 of them, from Chile to Israel in addition to Brazil itself. I have written a few articles about it and intend to publish a book about it in the near future.
As result of the research on ethnicity I have found compelled to pay attention to the Latin American variant on postcolonial thought. The result is a gently polemical book After the Decolonial: Ethnicity, Gender and Social Justice in Latin America (2022).
My academic career began in Oxford, but really only came to life in 1968 when I went to Chile to do research on land reform. The next five years were, to say the least, a turbulent period in Chile, starting with moderate reform, then embarking on a radical but still democratic path to socialism which was viciously repressed in Pinochet’s 1973 military coup and the authoritarian regime that followed. The experience, from near and from afar, influenced a whole generation.
My first job was at the Institute of Development Studies at Sussex University, after which I worked briefly at the University of Kent, and then from 1973 in Cambridge. I have taught on Development, Latin America and Religion, and was Director of the Centre of Latin American Studies for 10 years during the 1990s. I have been a Visiting Professor in Brazil, Chile, Spain, Israel and France.
Research Interests
My current research has two strands. One is largely theoretical and concerns the ways in which the meanings and uses of the decolonial in Latin American and Latin Americanist social science. It stems from my concern with the deployment of terms such as universalism and other, or different, epistemologies and with the balance between social class, ethnicity and gender in prevailing interpretations of Latin American society and culture.
The other strand is empirical and focuses on neo-Pentecostalism, which is probably the fastest growing stream within world Christianity. Neo-Pentecostalism emerged in Latin America in the late 20th century, soon to be transferred to and replicated in Africa, Europe, North America and the Philippines. The centralized global hierarchies and the uniform doctrines and preaching styles developed by neo-Pentecostal churches set them apart from those prevalent in the English-speaking world. They are multinational organizations, following migrants from their countries of origin to Europe and North America and building impressive media and online presences. Their message, conveyed in shrill, even menacing, rhetoric, is complex. They tell their followers that a commitment to Jesus expressed in their prayers, their lifestyle and their tithes (regular financial contributions) will help them achieve material security and a stable family life. Yet that promise of stability is coloured by the shock effect of preaching that seems designed to engender fear and anxiety that the forces of evil may ‘go after’ a person and their families.
Neo-Pentecostalism’s combination of up-to-date communications, a promise of this-worldly success, a transgressive model of ritual that breaks with the sober and deliberate style of age-old Christian traditions, and blithe disrespect for the conventions of the secular state, constitute a challenge to prevailing notions of the nature and limits of the domains of religion and the secular.
Research Projects
My current project is entitled ‘The Universal Church of the Kingdom of God: a motivational machine’. It is an inquiry into the original neo-Pentecostal church, the Brazil-based Universal Church of the Kingdom of God. Founded in 1977, which claims (credibly) to be present in 142 countries, and has a hierarchy of 300 bishops, thousands of pastors, tens of thousands of assistants and millions of followers. At its head sits the founder Edir Macedo, who combines his church leadership with ownership of Brazil’s second largest free-to-air TV network, with business interests in banking, and a highly influential involvement in Brazilian politics. My main question is: how has the church developed the ‘motivational machine’ of the title: a corps of pastors and bishops, all men and mostly Brazilians, who work for the church, with their wives as pastoral couples. They rarely have children, and may spend many years away from their home town or country. They abjure ownership of assets and live on a church subsidy rather than a salary. The uniformed assistants are dedicated volunteers who take care of the congregation, collect tithes during services and help to organize prayer groups, youth groups, women’s groups and more.
The church has taken numerous features of traditional Christian practice and worship and tweaked or twisted them a little to create new ways to address the supernatural: the pastors are married but like monks they don’t have children; the church builds monumental places of worship and calls them cathedrals; it collects money in every service, however small the attendance, not discretely but with vociferous calls that the money is needed for its growth; its only book is the Bible and through the leader’s TV company it has broadcast highly successful Bible-based soap operas (telenovelas) in which stories from the Bible are retold with all the classic themes of soaps: illicit love affairs across national, tribal and religious lines,, doubtful paternity, corruption, violence, fierce family feuds and so on. These are produced in Brazil and sold or streamed worldwide in Portuguese, Spanish and English.
The Universal Church says it is not a religion.
Teaching
Current Doctoral students:
Carla Moscoso
Nicolas Flint
Luis Garrido
Vanessa Rau
Publications
Books
Democracy and Development in Latin America: Economics, politics and religion in the postwar period, Cambridge, Polity Press, (U.S. edition: Temple University Press.), 1990.
Struggle for the Spirit: Religious Transformation and Popular Culture in Brazil and Latin America, Oxford, Polity Press, (U.S. edition, Blackwell International, 1996
(with Batia Siebzehner) Remaking Israeli Judaism: the challenge of Shas, London, Hurst and Company, New York OUP, 2006
(edited) Agrarian Reform and Agrarian Reformism. London, Faber and Faber, 1974.
(edited) Development Theory: Four Critical Studies. London, Frank Cass, 1979.
(edited) Ecology and Exchange in the Andes, Cambridge University Press, 1982.
(edited with Humeira Iqtidar) Fundamentalist and Charismatic Movements, Four volumes. London, Routledge, 2011
(edited) The Crisis of Multiculturalism in Latin America, New York, Palgrave, 2016.
The Prism of Race: the Politics and Ideology of Affirmative Action in Brazil, Ann Arbor, Michigan University Press, 2018
After the Decolonial: Ethnicity, Gender and Social Justice in Latin America, Cambridge, Polity Press, 2022
Special Journal Issues (Guest Editor)
Bulletin of Latin American Research, 18, 2, April 1999: Special Issue on Social Movements and Religious Change
Citizenship Studies, 16, 8, 2012: Special Issue on Secularism beyond the North Atlantic World, edited with Humeira Iqtidar
Book Chapters
"The international context" (with Clive Bell), in Ann Zammit (ed.): The Chilean Road to Socialism, IDS, Sussex, 1974.
"Introduction" and "Land reform in Chile: an essay in contradictions", in Lehmann (ed.) Agrarian Reform and Agrarian reformism, 1974 (published in Italian in Problemi del Socialismo).
"Military organization and the state in Latin America", in E.V.K. Fitzgerald et al. (eds): The State and Economic Development in Latin America, Cambridge, Centre for Latin American Studies, 1977.
"Proletarización, reforma agraria y movimientos sociales: ("Proletarianization, agrarian reform and social movements") in PREALC (Latin American Employment Programme of the ILO): Economia campesina y empleo, (Peasant Economy and Employment) Santiago, Chile, 1981.
"Proletarianization and 'peasantization': recent changes in the agrarian structures of Brazil and Mexico", in S. Jones et al.(eds): Rural Poverty and Land Reform, Delhi, Allied Publishers,1982.
"Agrarian structure, migration and the state in Cuba", in Peter Peek and Guy Standing (eds): State Policies and Migration in Latin America and the Caribbean, London Croom Helm, 1982.
"Agrarian Reform and Structural Change in Chile: 1965 1979", in A.K. Ghose (ed.): Agrarian Reform in Contemporary Developing Countries, London, Croom Helm, 1983.
`Religious revolutions', in Fiona Wilson and Finn Stepputat (eds): People in politics: debating democracy in Latin America, Copenhagen, Centre for Development Research, 1994.
(with Anthony Bebbington) `NGOs, the state and the development process: the dilemmas of institutionalization', in Menno Vellinga (ed.): The changing role of the state in Latin America, Boulder, Westview Press, 1998 (Also published in Spanish by Siglo XXI, Mexico). ISBN 0-8133-2137 9.
‘Female-headed households in Latin America and the Caribbean: problems of analysis and conceptualization’, in Pour l’Histoire du Brésil: hommage à Katia de Queirós Mattoso, ed. François Crouzet and Denis Rolland, Paris, L’Harmattan, 2000.
‘Charisme et possession en Afrique et au Brésil’, in Françoise Champion and Jean-Philippe Bastian (eds.): La globalisation du religieux, Paris L’Harmattan, 2000.
‘Religion, globalisation and fundamentalism’, in Linda Woodhead et al. (eds.), Religions in the modern world: traditions and transformations, Oxford, Blackwell, 2001.
(with Batia Siebzehner) ‘The role of education in a movement of ethnic and religious renewal: the case of Shas’, in Gad Arnsberg, Peter Fenn and Karl Schneider (eds.): Democracy – Education – Society Aspects of their interrelationship in Israel and Germany, Filibach Verlag, Freiburg. i. B. 2006.
(with Batia Siebzehner) ‘Holy Pirates: Media, Ethnicity and Religious Renewal in Israel’, in Birgit Meyer and Annelies Moors (eds.): Religion, media and the public sphere, Bloomington, Indiana University Press, pp.91-109, 2006
‘Religion and globalization’ in Linda Woodhead, Hiroko Kawanemi and Christopher Partridge (eds.): Religions in the Modern World, Routledge, 2008 (also published in Portuguese in Desigualdade e diversidade, the online Social Science journal of the Catholic University of Rio de Janeiro ; no. 4, January-June 2009) http://publique.rdc.puc-rio.br/desigualdadediversidade/cgi/cgilua.exe/sy...
‘Rational Choice and the Sociology of Religion’, chapter 8 in Bryan S. Turner (ed.) The New Blackwell Companion to the Sociology of Religion, John Wiley and Sons, 2010, ISBN 1-4051-8852-9
‘The Latin American Religious Field’, in Claude Auroi and Aline Helg (eds.): Latin America, 1810-2010: Dreams and Legacies, London, Imperial College Press, 2011
(with Batia Siebzehner): ‘Recruitment and conversion in the Israeli ultra-Orthodox community: Shas’s t’shuva project’, in Kimmy Caplan and Nurit Stadler (eds.). From Survival to Consolidation: Changes in Israeli Haredi Society and Its Scholarly Study, H'akibutz Hame’uhad and the Van Leer Institute, Tel-Aviv. (Hebrew), 2012.
‘Identity, social justice and corporatism: the resilience of republican citizenship’ in Mario Sznajder and Luis Roniger (eds.): Shifting frontiers of citizenship in Latin America, Brill, 2012
‘Hope and Religion’ in Andrew McKinnon and Marta Trzebiatowska (eds.) Sociological Theory and the Question of Religion, Ashgate, 2014 pp. 75-104.
‘The Religious Field in Latin America: Autonomy and Fragmentation’, in The Cambridge History of Religions in Latin America (eds. Virginia Garrard-Burnett, Paul Freston and Stephen C. Dove), 2016. pp. 739-763
‘Introduction’ and ‘The Politics of Naming: Affirmative Action in Brazilian Higher Education’ in David Lehmann (ed.): (edited) The Crisis of Multiculturalism in Latin America, New York, Palgrave, 2016 pp.1-34 and 179-222.
‘A política do reconhecimento: teoría e prática’ in Maria Gabriela Hita (ed.): Raça, racismo e genética em debates científicos e controversias sociais. Salvador, EDUFBA 2017.
‘Ritual, text and politics: The evangelical mindset and political polarisation’ in A Horizon of (Im)possibilities: A Chronicle of Brazil’s Conservative Turn, ed. K. Hatzikidi and E. Dullo (London, University of London Press, 2021.) pp. 103–120.
Articles
"The trajectory of the Cuban revolution" (review article), Journal of Development Studies, VII, 2, January 1971.
"Political incorporation versus political stability: the case of the Chilean Agrarian Reform", Journal of Development Studies, VII, 4, July 1971.
"Peasant consciousness and agrarian reform in Chile", European Journal of Sociology, November 1972.
"Generalizing about peasant movements" (review article), Journal of Development Studies, January 1973.
"Ideologies of interdisciplinarity and income distribution", Cambridge Anthropology, IV, 1, 1975.
"Theory of agrarian structure: typology and paths of transformation in Latin America", Working Paper, Centre for Latin American Studies, Cambridge, 1976.
"Neo classical populism", Peasant Studies, October 1977.
"The death of Land Reform", World Development, VI, 3, 1978.
"The political economy of Armageddon", Journal of Development Economics, 5, 1978, 107-123.
"The Cuban economy in 1978", Cambridge Journal of Economics, III, 1979.
"Ni Lenin ni Chayanov", Estudios Rurales Latinoamericanos, III, 1, 1980.
"Revolutions and the imperatives of state power" (review article), Political Studies, 1981.
"Chile's three agrarian reforms: the inheritors", (with L. Castillo), Bulletin of Latin American Research, I,2, 1982.
"A note on the relationship between peasant economy and seasonal labour in pre revolutionary Cuba", Bulletin of Latin American Research, II,1, 1982.
"Beyond Lenin and Chayanov", Journal of Development Economics, II, 1982.
“Economía Campesina: guía para planificadores progresistas”, Revista Andina (Cuzco), no. 1, 136-141, 1983.
"Sharecropping and the capitalist transition in agriculture: some evidence from highland Ecuador", Journal of Development Economics, 1985 (published in Spanish in Estudios Rurales Latinoamericanos, 1987).
"Smallholding agriculture in revolutionary Cuba: a case of under exploitation?", Development and Change, XVI, 1985.
"Cardoso: da dependencia a democracia", Novos Estudos CEBRAP (São Paulo), 14, 1986.
"Two paths of agrarian capitalism: a critique of Chayanovian marxism", Comparative Studies in Society and History, October, 1986 (published in Spanish in Estudios Andinos, III,7, 1985, and in Italian in Proposte e Ricerche, 19, 1987).
"A Latin American Political Scientist: Guillermo O'Donnell", Latin American Research Review, XXIV, 2, 1989.
"Modernity and Loneliness: popular culture in Quito and Guadalajara", European Journal of Development Research, II, 1, 1990. (Spanish version published in Chile by PREALC.)
Prologómeno a las revoluciones religiosas en América Latina, Punto de Vista, (Buenos Aires), 1992. (Also published in Tempo Social (São Paulo), 4, 1 2, 1994).
(with Priscilla Delano): Women Workers in Labour Intensive Factories: the case of Chile's Fish Industry. European Journal of Development Research, V,2, 1993.
‘An opportunity lost: Escobar’s deconstruction of development’, Journal of Development Studies,.33, 4, pp.568-578, 1997
‘Fundamentalism and globalism’, Third World Quarterly, 19,1, pp.607-634, 1998
(with Patricia Birman) ‘Religion and the media in a battle for ideological hegemony: the Universal Church of the Kingdom of God and TV Globo in Brazil’, Bulletin of Latin American Research, 18,2, April 1999, 145-164
‘Fundamentalismo: una forma de ser moderno’, Punto de Vista (Buenos Aires), 66, 20-30, April, 2000. (translation of ‘Fundamentalism and globalism’ above)
‘Fundamentalismo y globalismo’, Política (Madrid) 2000 (translation of ‘Fundamentalism and globalism’ above)
‘Charisma and possession in Africa and Brazil’, Theory, Culture and Society, 18, 5, 45-74 2001.
‘Religion in contemporary Latin American social science’, Bulletin of Latin American Research, 21,2, 290-307, 2002. (published in Spanish in the Revista Mexicana de Sociología, 2005)
(with Nikki Craske) ‘50 years of research in Latin American Studies in the United Kingdom’, European Review of Latin American and Caribbean Studies, 72, 61-80, April 2002.
‘Dissidence and conformism in religious movements: what difference – if any – separates the Catholic Charismatic Renewal and Pentecostal Churches?’ Concilium, 3, 2003, pp. 122-138
‘The cognitive approach to understanding religion’, Archives des Sciences Sociales des Religions, 131-132: 199-213, 2005
‘Secularism and the Public–Private Divide: Europe can learn from Latin America’, Political Theology, 7, 3:273-293, (2006)
A milagrosa economia da religião: um ensaio sobre o capital social (‘The miraculous economics of religion: an essay on social capital’, Horizontes Antropologicos (Brazil), 27 (2007)
‘Gilberto Freyre: the reassessment continues’, Latin American Research Review, 43, 1, 208-218 (2008)
‘Gilberto Freyre: a re-evaluação continua’ (an expanded version of the above in Portuguese), Horizontes Antropologicos (Brazil) 29, Jan-June 2008, (369-385)
L’économie miraculeuse de la religion: essai sur le capital social’, Social Compass, 55: 4, December 2008
(with Batia Siebzehner) ‘Power, Boundaries and Institutions: Marriage in Ultra-Orthodox Judaism’, European Journal of Sociology, 50, 2, 273-308, 2009 (translated into Portuguese as ‘Poder, Fronteiras e Instituições: casamento no judaísmo Ultra-Ortodoxo’, Revista Digital do NIEJ 3: 5, 51-70, December 2011
(with Batia Siebzehner) ‘Self-exclusion as a path to political inclusion: the case of Shas’, Citizenship Studies, 12, 3 2008 (this has been published in a revised version in Guy Ben-Porath and Bryan Turner (eds.): The contradictions of Israeli citizenship, London, Routledge, 2011).
Dilemas de las universidades interculturales en México, IdeAs Idées d’Ameriques, Institut des Amériques, Paris, no.2 , 2012
‘Esperança e religião’, Estudos Avançados (São Paulo), 26, (75) 219-236, 2012.
‘Israel: State management of religion or religious management of the state?’ in Special Issue of Citizenship Studies, 16, 8, 2012 pp. 1029-1043
(with Humeira Iqtidar) ‘Introduction’ to Special Issue of Citizenship Studies, ‘Secularism beyond the North Atlantic World’ 16,8, 2012, pp. 953-959.
Les dilemmes des universities interculturelles au Mexique, IdeAs – Idées d’Amériques (2) 2012 available online at http://ideas.revues.org/331
‘Shifting frontiers of secularism: conversion-led religious movements and the management of state-religion relations in Europe, the US and Brazil’. Special Issue on ‘Multiple secularities’, International Sociology, 28 (6), 2013 pp. 645-662
‘Intercultural Universities in Mexico: Identity and Inclusion’, Journal of Latin American Studies, 45, 779-811, November 2013
‘Convergencias y divergencias en la educación superior intercultural en México’, Revista Mexicana de Ciencias Políticas y Sociales, LX, 223, 133-170, 2015.
(with Peter Walsh) ‘Academic Celebrity’, International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society, 34, 21–46 2021 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10767-019-09340-9
‘L’Église Universelle du Royaume de Dieu et la reconfiguration de la religion’, Brésil(s), [Online] 2021. https://journals.openedition.org/bresils/11207#quotation
‘Ansiedade e reciprocidade: a Igreja Universal do Reino de Deus além das fronteiras’, Religião & Sociedade (Rio de Janeiro), 43,3; also in English: Anxiety and Reciprocity: the Universal Church of the Kingdom of God across frontiers. https://www.scielo.br/j/rs/a/Gy6PsbNCDPhn9yjMrSkvv3j/abstract/?lang=pt#
Key Publications - Books
After the Decolonial: Ethnicity, Gender and Social Justice in Latin America, Cambridge Polity Press, 2022
The Crisis of Multiculturalism in Latin America, Palgrave, 2016
(edited with Humeira Iqtidar) Fundamentalist and Charismatic Movements, Four Volumes. London, Routledge 2011
(Edited) Ecology and Exchange in the Andes, Cambridge University Press, 1982
Development Theory: Four Critical Studies. London, Frank Cass, 1979
Agrarian Reform and Agrarian Reformism. London, Faber and Faber, 1974
Remaking Israeli Judaism: the challenge of Shas, London, Hurst and Company, New York OUP, 2006
Struggle for the Spirit: Religious Transformation and Popular Culture in Brazil and Latin America, Oxford, Polity Press, (U.S. edition, Blackwell International, 1996 (with Batia Siebzehner)
Democracy and Development in Latin America: Economics, politics and religion in the postwar period, Cambridge, Polity Press, (U.S. edition: Temple University Press.), 1990.
Key Publications - Book Chapters
‘Popular religion in Latin America: the impact of Pentecostalism and neo-Pentecostalism,' in The Cambridge History of Latin American Religion (eds. Virginia Garrard-Burnett and Paul Freston).
‘A política do reconhecimento: teoría e prática’ in Maria Gabriela Hita (ed.): Raça, racismo e genética em debates científicos e controversias sociais. Salvador, EDUFBA 2017.
‘Introduction’ and ‘The Politics of Naming: Affirmative Action in Brazilian Higher Education’ in David Lehmann (ed.): (edited) The Crisis of Multiculturalism in Latin America, New York, Palgrave 2016 (in press)
‘The Religious Field in Latin America: Autonomy and Fragmentation’, in The Cambridge History of Religions in Latin America (eds. Virginia Garrard-Burnett, Paul Freston and Stephen C. Dove), 2016.
‘Hope and Religion’ in Andrew McKinnon and Marta Trzebiatowska (eds.) Sociological Theory and the Question of Religion, Ashgate, 2014.
'Introduction' in David Lehmann (Ed.): The Crisis of Multiculturalism in Latin America, New York, Palgrave, 2016 pp.1-34
'The Politics of Naming: Affirmative Action in Brazilian Higher Education' in David Lehmann (ed.): The Crisis of Multiculturalism in Latin America, New York, Palgrave, 2016 pp.179-222
'The Religious Field in Latin America: Autonomy and Fragmentation' in The Cambridge History of Religions in Latin America (Eds Virginia Garrard-Burnett, Paul Freston and Stephen C. Dove) 2016, pp 739-763
‘A política do reconhecimento: teoría e prática’ in Maria Gabriela Hita (ed.): Raça, racismo e genética em debates científicos e controversias sociais. Salvador, EDUFBA 2017.
‘Ritual, text and politics: The evangelical mindset and political polarisation’ in A Horizon of (Im)possibilities: A Chronicle of Brazil’s Conservative Turn, ed. K. Hatzikidi and E. Dullo (London, University of London Press, 2021.) pp. 103–120.
Key Publications - Journal Articles
‘Intercultural Universities in Mexico: Identity and Inclusion’, Journal of Latin American Studies, (2013) Vol. 45, pp. 779-811
‘Power, Boundaries and Institutions: Marriage in Ultra-Orthodox Judaism’, European Journal of Sociology, (2009), Vol. 50, No. 2, pp. 273-308
‘Fundamentalism and Globalism’, Third World Quarterly, (1998) Vol. 19, No. 1, pp.607-634 (with Batia Siebzehner)
'The Political Economy of Armageddon', Journal of Development Economics, (1978) Vol. 5, pp. 107-123
‘Convergencias y divergencias en la educación superior intercultural en México’, Revista Mexicana de Ciencias Políticas y Sociales, LX, 223, 133-170, 2015.
(with Peter Walsh) ‘Academic Celebrity’ International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society, 34, 21–46 2021
David Lehmann, "The Universal Church of the Kingdom of God and the Reconfiguration of Religion," Brésil(s) [Online], 20 | 2021, online 30 November 2021, accessed 21 October 2022. URL: http://journals.openedition.org/bresils/11207; DOI
‘Power, Boundaries and Institutions: Marriage in Ultra-Orthodox Judaism’, European Journal of Sociology, (2009), Vol. 50, No. 2, pp. 273-308
‘The Universal Church of the Kingdom of God and the Reconfiguration of Religion," Brésil(s) [Online], 20 | 2021, (in French) 30 November 2021, accessed 21 October 2022.
Grants and Projects
2014-16: from the Leverhulme Trust, for research entitled ‘Redrawing religious boundaries and identities: Messianic Jews and Christians’. (£22,000).
2012: from the British Academy, for research on Judaism in the Pentecostal Imaginary (£10,000).
2008: from the British Academy, small grant (£2,000) to support a workshop run by the Religion and Secularism Network.
2007-10: from the Arts and Humanities Research Council for a Network entitled ‘Secularism: a reappraisal of institutional arrangements for religious regulation’ (£20,000). Now known as The Religion and Secularism Network and run with Humeira Iqtidar .
2006-12: from the British Academy, for research on Multiculturalism in Latin America: a Study in the Diffusion of Ideas (£85,000).
